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Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
Reprint requests to: Robert W. Woody, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; e-mail: rww{at}lamar.colostate.edu; fax: (970) 491-0494.
(RECEIVED October 4, 2002; FINAL REVISION November 13, 2002; ACCEPTED October 25, 2002)
Article and publication are at http://www.proteinscience.org/cgi/doi/10.1110/ps.0235003.
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Abstract |
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 TOP Abstract IntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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-rich proteins are similar to those of model -helices, but ß-rich proteins exhibit CD spectra that are reminiscent of CD spectra of either model ß-sheets or unordered polypeptides. The existence of these two types of CD spectra for ß-rich proteins form the basis for their classification as ßI- and ßII-proteins. Although the conformation of ß-sheets is largely responsible for the CD spectra of ßI-proteins, the source of ßII-protein CD, which resembles that of unordered polypeptides, is not completely understood. The CD spectra of unordered polypeptides are similar to that of the poly(Pro)II helix, and the poly(Pro)II-type (P2) structure forms a significant fraction of the unordered conformation in globular proteins. We have compared the ß-sheet and P2 structure contents in ß-rich proteins to understand the origin of ßII-protein CD. We find that ßII-proteins have a ratio of P2 to ß-sheet content greater than 0.4, whereas for ßI-proteins this ratio is less than 0.4. The ß-sheet content in ßI-proteins is generally higher than that in ßII-proteins. The origin of two classes of CD spectra for ß-rich proteins appears to lie in their relative ß-sheet and P2 structure contents. Keywords: Protein secondary structure; ß-rich proteins; protein CD; P2 structure
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Introduction |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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-helical structures are grouped under -rich proteins (also called and all-), those with predominantly ß-sheets under ß-rich proteins (also called ßß and all-ß), and those with separate or intermixed -helical and ß-sheet regions are called + ß and /ß proteins, respectively. It is rather difficult to distinguish the + ß and /ß proteins based on their CD spectra, and they are combined to form the ß class for the purpose of CD analysis (Sreerama et al. 2001).
The CD spectra of -rich proteins have the characteristics of CD spectra of model polypeptides in -helical conformation. The CD spectra of ß proteins also have features of -helix CD, which dominates protein CD, but with reduced amplitudes. ß-Rich proteins exhibit a variety of CD spectra, and they form two distinct sets (Manavalan and Johnson 1983). Wu et al. (1992) classified the ß-rich proteins into ßI- and ßII-proteins based on the two types of CD spectra: ßI-proteins have CD spectra that resemble those of model ß-sheets, and the CD spectra of ßII-proteins resemble those of unfolded proteins. Although the dominating effect of ß-structure explains the ßI-protein CD, distorted and/or short ß-strands have been suggested (Manavalan and Johnson 1983) to be responsible for ßII-protein CD.
Experimental and theoretical considerations are not compatible with attributing the CD spectra of ßII-proteins to highly twisted ß-sheets. Toniolo et al. have measured the CD spectra of ß-sheets formed by the association of heptameric homo-oligopeptides with side chains ranging from Ala (Toniolo and Bonora 1975), Val and Ile (Toniolo et al. 1974). These are expected to vary in the degree of twisting, with small linear and 
-branched peptides having little twist, and ß-branched peptides forming strongly twisted sheets (Chou and Scheraga 1982; Chou et al. 1982). In all cases, the spectra showed a strong positive band in the 190–220 nm region, with the sheets expected to be more strongly twisted having stronger bands. Theoretical calculations (Manning et al. 1988) are consistent with these observations. Earlier theoretical calculations (Woody 1969) on planar ß-sheets as small as two strands of two residues predicted a CD pattern much like that of extensive ß-sheets. This argues against attributing the CD pattern of ßII-proteins to short-stranded ß-sheets.
Unordered polypeptide CD spectra are similar to the CD of poly(Pro)II (Woody 1992; Shi et al. 2002). The poly(Pro)II helix is a left-handed helix with three residues per turn with repeating backbone dihedral angles (
, 
) 
(-70°, +150°). The similarity of CD spectra led Tiffany and Krimm (1968) to suggest that short stretches of poly(Pro)II-like (P2) conformation form a significant fraction of unordered polypeptides. Analyses of crystal structures have shown that the P2 conformation can constitute an appreciable fraction of secondary structure in globular proteins (Adzhubei and Sternberg 1993; Sreerama and Woody 1994; Stapley and Creamer 1999).
We have analyzed the crystal structures of ßI- and ßII-proteins to find a structural basis for the two different classes of CD spectra of ß-rich proteins. The two secondary structures that give rise to the basic features of the CD spectra of ßI- and ßII-proteins, which are ß-sheet and P2 structure, respectively, are compared to explain the origin of ß-protein CD. We find that the relative compositions of ß- and P2-structures in ß-rich proteins determine the type of ß-protein CD spectrum.
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Results and discussion |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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-rich proteins have a large -helical secondary structure fraction that gives rise to CD spectra that are reminiscent of the CD spectra of model -helices. Proteins that have a large ß-sheet fraction, in contrast to -rich proteins, give rise to two types of CD spectra that are classified as ßI- and ßII-CD (Wu et al. 1992). The CD spectra of 16 ß-rich proteins are shown in Figure 1
. Characteristic CD spectra of ßII-proteins, shown in Figure 1A, have a negative band around 200 nm. Some of the ßII-protein spectra have a small positive band around 190 nm, and some have a positive band or a negative shoulder around 220 nm. On the other hand, CD spectra of ßI-proteins (Fig. 1B) have a significantly stronger positive band around 190 nm and a comparable negative band in the 210–220 nm region. CD bands above 225 nm are observed in both ßI- and ßII-proteins, presumably due to aromatic and disulfide groups.
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-helix, ß-sheet, and P2-conformation, were deconvoluted from a reference protein set of 37 globular proteins used in the CDPro secondary structure analysis programs (Sreerama and Woody 2000b). These are shown in Figure 2A. The CD spectra of an -helical polypeptide (poly[Glu]; Toumadje et al. 1992), a ß-sheet polypeptide (poly[Leu-Lys] in 0.1 M NaF, pH 7; Brahms et al. 1977), and of poly(Pro)II in trifluoroethanol at room temperature (Jenness et al. 1976) are shown in Figure 2B. The CD spectrum of -helical structure in globular proteins has the characteristic positive band around 192 nm and two negative bands around 208 and 222 nm, similar to that of model -helical polypeptides. The CD spectrum of ß-sheet structure extracted from globular protein CD spectra has the typical positive and negative bands around 195 and 218 nm, respectively, of the CD spectra of model ß-sheets. The CD spectrum of the P2 structure is similar to that of poly(Pro)II. The position of the negative band in the model poly(Pro)II helix, which has tertiary amides, is red-shifted in comparison with that of globular proteins, in which secondary amides predominate. The amplitude of the negative CD band in P2 structure is larger than that of the positive band in ß-sheets in both model systems and globular proteins.
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) with model polypeptide CD spectra (Fig. 2B) indicates that ßI-proteins have CD features that are seen in the spectra of model ß-sheets, and ßII-proteins have CD features seen in the model P2 helix. It is clear that the presence of ß-sheets in ßI-proteins is largely responsible for the CD spectra of ßI-proteins. However, ßII-proteins exhibit P2-like CD despite the presence of a significant ß-sheet content. The P2 conformation can form a significant fraction of secondary structure in globular proteins (Adzhubei and Sternberg 1993; Sreerama and Woody 1994; Stapley and Creamer 1999). Although they lack the inter- or intra-strand hydrogen bonds that define -helices and ß-sheets, they are generally identified by the regular geometric features of the backbone structure. The crystal structures of the ß-rich proteins considered in this work were analyzed and the number of residues in -helix, ß-sheet, and P2 structures were determined (see Materials and Methods). We have considered both the single residues in P2-conformation and clusters of two or more P2-residues in determining the P2 structure. Even in an isolated P2-residue the orientation of two successive peptide groups are such that the interpeptide interactions expected in a P2 helix are possible.
The number of residues in -helix, ß-sheet, and P2 structure for ßI- and ßII-protein crystal structures are given in Table 1. The first eight proteins are ßII-proteins and the last eight are ßI-proteins. Two numbers are given for the number of residues in -helices; the number in parenthesis corresponds to the number of residues of 310 helix. The ßII-proteins have a larger fraction of residues in P2 structure (fP2, which can be obtained by dividing the number of residues in P2 structure by the total number of residues, is greater than 15%) than the ßI-proteins (fP2 less than 13%), with the exception of Bence-Jones protein (fP2 = 18%). The ß-sheet content in the ßI-proteins are generally larger (fß > 40%) than that in ßII-proteins (fß < 40%).
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. Although ßII-proteins have the ratio fP2/fß > 0.4, for ßI-proteins, this ratio is < 0.3, except for Bence-Jones protein (fP2/fß = 0.38), which has a large ß-sheet content (
50%). Two proteins, rubredoxin and wheat germ agglutinin, have a very high fP2/fß ratio (>1.0) but they also have a smaller ß-sheet content than the rest and a comparable -helix content. They can be classified as ß proteins, but we have included them here as ßII-proteins because their CD spectra are similar to those of ßII-proteins. These two proteins also have P2 content in excess of 20%.
The band around 190 nm in the CD spectrum of P2 structure is of opposite sign and has greater amplitude than the corresponding band in ß-sheet CD spectrum (Fig. 2). This difference is more pronounced in globular proteins, which may partly be a result of the restrictive nature of the P2 structure assignment method and partly a result of the deconvolution method. The larger contribution of the P2 structure, in comparison to ß-sheets, to the protein CD spectra is consistent with the observation that ß-rich proteins with an fP2/fß ratio > 0.4 have poly(Pro)II-like CD spectra.
The origin of a protein CD spectrum lies in the secondary structure content of that protein. The origin of two classes of CD spectra for ß-rich proteins appears to lie in their relative ß-sheet and P2 structure contents. The unordered-like or poly(Pro)II-like CD of some ß-rich proteins has its source in the P2 structure content of ßII-proteins. Although ßI-proteins also have some P2 structure, they have a relatively higher ß-sheet content, which is probably responsible for the resemblance of their CD spectra to those of model ß-sheets. ßII-proteins, on the other hand, have a smaller ß-sheet content and a larger P2-content than that in ßI-proteins resulting in their unordered-like or poly(Pro)II-like CD. The relative compositions of ß- and P2-structures in ß-rich proteins apparently give rise to the two classes of ß-rich protein CD.
Variations in the ß-sheet structure in proteins may also influence the CD spectra of ß-rich proteins. Two parameters that define a ß-sheet structure—length and twist—are somewhat interdependent: ß-sheets with longer strands generally form relatively flat sheets, and ß-sheets with short strands have a tendency to form more strongly twisted sheets. The average length of ß-sheets (determined as the ratio of the number of residues in ß-strands to the number of ß-strands) in the ßI- and ßII-proteins considered in this work are comparable. ßI-proteins had slightly longer ß-sheets (7 residues) than ßII-proteins (5 residues). However, this difference seems unlikely to lead to a qualitative difference in CD spectra.
The majority of the methods for the estimation of secondary structures from the analysis of protein CD spectra generally include -helix, ß-sheet and turns. Data sets that include P2 structure are also available (Sreerama and Woody 1994; Johnson 1999). The performance of the CD spectral analysis, however, is not affected greatly by the introduction of P2 structure (N. Sreerama and R.W. Woody, unpubl). Generally, the estimates of -helix and ß-sheet remain the same because the P2 content is determined from the residues not assigned to -helix and ß-sheet. The estimates of turns and unordered structures are altered, however, because they are reassigned after P2 structure assignment. Despite the two classes of CD spectra for ß-rich proteins, the performance of the CD analysis for estimating ß-sheet content is quite reasonable (9% RMS deviation between x-ray and CD estimates; Sreerama and Woody 2000b ). There are two reasons for the success of CD analysis: a reference protein set that includes a diverse set of protein CD spectra, which includes good representations of both ßI- and ßII-proteins; and improvements in the methods for variably selecting proteins for analysis. Variable selection allows for the creation of a protein reference set specific for the analyzed CD spectrum, for example, by always including ßII-proteins in the analysis of the CD spectrum of a ßII-protein. One could improve the reliability of the analysis of ß-rich proteins by combining CD with other conformationally sensitive spectroscopic techniques (e.g., IR, VCD).
In summary, we have examined the origin of two classes of CD spectra for ß-rich proteins on the basis of their secondary structure contents. The relatively higher P2 structure content of ßII proteins gives rise to their unordered-like CD. Although ßI-proteins also have some P2 structure they have a relatively higher ß-sheet content, resulting in ß-sheet–like CD. ßII-proteins, however, have a smaller ß-sheet content and a larger P2-content than ßI-proteins. The origin of the two classes of ß-rich protein CD lies in the relative compositions of ß- and P2-structures in ß-rich proteins.
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Materials and methods |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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. Most of these protein CD spectra are from W.C. Johnson, Jr. (pers. comm.). The CD spectra of carbonic anhydrase and chymotrypsinogen are taken from Pancoska et al. (1995), and those of rat intestinal fatty-acid binding protein and green fluorescent protein are from Sreerama et al. (1999). The CD spectrum of soybean trypsin inhibitor is from Wu et al. (1992), and that of wheat germ agglutinin is from Thomas et al. (1977).
The number of residues in -helix, 310-helix and ß-sheet conformations were determined using the assignments from the DSSP method (Kabsch and Sander 1983), which uses hydrogen bonding patterns to identify these secondary structures. The number of residues in P2 conformation was determined using the method of Sreerama and Woody (1994), which utilizes the virtual bond angle between three successive C atoms and the virtual dihedral angle between the two successive peptide-carbonyl groups and assigns secondary structures in conjunction with DSSP assignments in a hierarchical manner. For the residues not assigned to these four structures, DSSP assignments were retained. The residues in ß-bridges (structure B in DSSP) were combined with ß-sheets, and the -helix and 310-helix were grouped together as -helix (N). For proteins with more than one polypeptide chain in the structure, all chains were considered for secondary structure assignment.
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Note added in proof |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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10% in clitocypin; 4–7% in ß-rich proteins considered here) coupled with the ßII CD suggests a significant P2 structure in clitocypin, the confirmation of which is awaited.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by an NIH Research Grant (GM22994). The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 USC section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
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References |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionResults and discussionMaterials and methodsNote added in proofReferences |
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